Psy 416: Reasoning and Problem Solving
E. Segal
Introduction

I. The course has three basic components.

  1. Theoretical and Historical : Overview of different approaches to the acquisition of knowledge and skilled performance, and the kinds of evidence brought in support of those approaches.
  2. Analytic approaches: What are some concepts and mechanisms that have the possibility of accounting for valid reasoning, effective problem solving, justified decisions and skilled performance? Here we are going to learn some fairly specific principles that many cognitive scientists believe underlie these activities.
  3. Empirical studies of reasoning, problem solving, and other complex acts: What do we do? Why do we do it? (And what insights may allow some of us to do it better?) How do we achieve the competence to do these things?
II. Brief Glossary Problems are situations (givens) in which one has a goal he or she wishes to achieve. Often, and sometimes required for the situation to be considered a real problem the way to achieve that goal is not obvious (obstacles).
Problem solving is the process by which a goal is achieved.
Reasoning is the study of a set of problems with certain (more-or-less) well-defined constraints and symbolic solutions.
Logic is the study of formal rules which purportedly underlie correct reasoning.
Decision Making is the selection of one option from a set of possibilities.
Expertise is a state of skill or competence that a person may reach after training or experience. One can envision a continuum from being a novice to being an expert.
Creativity is a skill or talent that some people seem to have in producing novel and interesting products or solutions to problems.
Intelligence can be associated with positive cognitive activity or behavior. One manifests intelligence by reasoning well, solving problems easily, acting rationally, learning complex material quickly, etc. Many think of intelligence as a special measurable property on which people vary. III. A problem approach
1. William James on functional definition of mind.
    Mind is displayed when the path varies and the goal remains the same.
2. A Structural view of problems: Components in Newell and Simon's "state-space" analysis
(Mayer p 5)
a. Problem space.
b. initial state
c. intermediate states
d. goal state
e. moves, transformations, or operations
    Well-defined and ill-defined problems.
IV. Typology and dimensionality of problems a. Operations on symbols Individual: Greeno taxonomy (M p 6)--(1) transformations to achieve pre-identified goal, (2) arrangement, (3) inducing structure, (4) evaluating deductions
Interactive: b. Performance: (1) Individual, (2) cooperative, (3) competitive
c. Planning, Long-term goals, and hierarchies of goals V. Examples of Problems 1. Barrier avoidance, problem box
2. Simple transformation problems (Greeno 1)
    Tower of Hanoi, water jug, Hobbits and Orcs
3. reorganize elements (Greeno 2)
    anagrams, cryptarithmetic,
4. Constrained generation of new elements (Greeno 3)
    Number sequence, analogy(?),
5. Geometry and other math problems,
    Logic problems (Greeno 4)
6. Problems in Physics and other sciences--Analogy
7. Memorizing a list (no transformations, goal known)
8. Induction 1: Decision and Categorization problems (Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin; Rosch, Controlled association)
9. Perceptual problems (Where's Waldo, Find words in letter matrix, Find animals in picture,  reading an x-ray)
10. Playing games well (Chess, poker, bridge, (consider particular moves in a game))
11. Creating novel objects: Writing an essay, composing a sonata, painting a picture, carving a statue, inventing a device, proposing a new scientific theory
12. Evaluating a claim: scientific theories, charges of a crime, designing experiments, ,
13. Skilled performance problems: (a) individual--Playing golf (correcting a slice), playing a sonata, painting a picture, carving a statue, removing a brain tumor, shooting a basketball; (b) competitive--playing tennis, football, basketball; (c) cooperative--singing in a chorus, playing in an orchestra
14. Memory search: Answering questions, Taking a test, recalling a phone number,
15. Passing a test, Getting an A in a course, getting a job, becoming a physician.
16. Find historical causes (Solving crimes, explaining historical events)
17. Social or political persuasion (Getting someone to do a favor, convincing someone of something, getting elected to public office, getting a job)

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